The War That Ended Peace

Europe had basically been at peace since Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo in 1815. The Paris Exposition of 1900 brought many nations to that city in harmony.  The western world seemed so far ahead of its far flung colonies.  Paris also hosted the second modern Olympics at the same time.

Improved hygiene had led to a rapid increase in the population of Europe, and this in turn led to a greater feeling of nationalism.  Not only was Europe experiencing this sense of prosperity, but Russia was on the rise and the United States was rapidly becoming an economic power.  Both nations were expanding imperialists, Russia to the east and the USA into the Pacific.

Although the Paris Exposition was bright with new things, it also showed the military might of the nations.  Behind the scenes, alliances were either formed or about to be formed.  The world was on the brink of catastrophe.

Britain was the strongest nation at sea, and Germany was the strongest nation in Europe, yet without a powerful navy and much in the way of colonies.   The royal families of the two nations were tightly related.  Yet, there was lots of animosity, especially on the part of the Germans.  Kaiser Wilhelm set about building a navy to compete with the British navy.  He was totally in charge of the German Empire, whereas Britain was a constitutional monarchy.

The Kaiser's Chancellor, von Bulow, was prepared to stir the pot, causing other countries to be at each other's throats, while Germany slowly and quietly got stronger.  Tirpitz, the Kaiser's new Secretary of the Navy, convinces him that a navy with battleships bigger than British ones is what is needed to secure Germany's place in the world.  Tirpitz's assumptions about how Britain would react proved to be far from the mark.

The naval race between Germany and Britain widened the gulf between those nations and at the same time forced more amicable relations between Britain and France.  France was constantly going through political turmoil since losing the war to Prussia in 1871.   The Dreyfus Affair was an example of the poor shape the French army was in.  Lacking friends in Europe, France turned to an unlikely friend, Russia.  It was Edward VII's visit to France in 1903 that would lead to the creation of the Entente Cordiale the following year.

Russia was stumbling along in the early years of the new century.  An incident on the Dogger Bank almost brought it to war with Britain.  In 1904 Russia found itself at war with Japan over control of parts of China.  The following year, after severely defeating the Russian navy, Japan agreed to peace.  The huge country of Russia was in many ways behind the developments of the rest of Europe.  It was still mainly a feudal country.  Its vastness ruled by a few rich elite, while the majority suffered from poverty. Costly strikes and revolutions were in the near future.

Tsar Nicholas II was an autocratic ruler who rarely took advice, and when he did, his advisors were not the best of men such as Rasputin.  He and his family were blissfully unaware of what was really going on in his own country.  The war with Japan had virtually bankrupted Russia, yet its expenditures on the military was above that of other ministries.   Russia found that it needed to connect with Britain, rather than Germany.  This led to Kaiser Wilhelm to feel surrounded.

Although Italy was part of the Triple Alliance, Germany felt that it could only truly turn to the Austrian-Hungarian Empire for support.  Austria-Hungary resented the strength that developed in German unification and also resented Italy.   The Germans were also concerned about the future of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire because it was made up of so many nationalities, very dissimilar to that of Germany.  The only way to keep the internal strife from wrecking the Dual Monarchy was to maintain a strong military.

The Balkans would prove to be a divisive factor between Russia and the Dual Monarchy.  As the Ottoman Empire began to crumble, the Slavs in the Balkans were guaranteed protection by the Russians, while the Dual Monarchy looked to the possible annexation of that area.

Many philosophers of the time argued against war, pointing out the economic costs as well as the cost in deaths of the best and brightest.  Alfred Nobel would create a peace prize just after the turn of the century.  Many pacifist societies would develope across the world, too.  Unfortunately there was not much of a pacifist movement in Germany, Austria-Hungary, nor Russia.  Nationalism seemed to be the natural enemy of pacifism in every country.

In preparation for war, the continental armies took advantage of the railways to move men and goods.  The Germans especially integrated their plans with railway timetables.   Unfortunately the armies and navies of the time did not communicate with each other, so war plans of one branch of the military were hidden from friends as well as foes.  Nor did the military see the reality of the new killing machines that were now available.  Their thoughts of a glorious war were generations in the past.

Germany was the most prepared for war.  The Sclieffen Plan was intended to eliminate France as quickly as possible using pincer movements to capture Paris.  It also intended to have Germany prepared for a two front war; eliminate France quickly while being on the defensive with Russia, then turning on Russia.  Unfortunately the plan, which meant going through neutral Belgium, didn't take into account the fact that Britain soul be drawn into the war on the side of the French as a result.  The Germans also counted on the Austrian-Hungarian army to keep Russia occupied fighting on the eastern front long enough for them to defeat France, and then bring their army to bear on the Russians.

Russia was well aware of what Germany was doing, but their own preparations were slow.  The Russians also had a spy in the Austrian-Hungarian army who kept them well informed.   Surprisingly both sides thought that the war would be a short one.

The first crisis leading to the war was the Moroccan issue.  Germany had hoped to push Britain and France apart, but in reality actually strengthened their relationship.  The second crisis occurred over the Balkan States.  At one time a part of the powerful Ottoman Empire, these states looked for independence, yet at the same time were viewed as up for grabs as the Ottoman Empire fell into decline.   Austria-Hungary and Russia had their eyes on the spoils.  Rumania, Bulgaria and Serbia would, each in its own way antagonise the Dual Monarchy.   It was Serbia that got under the skin of the Dual Monarchy the worst.

Austria-Hungary came to an agreement with Russia, whereby the former would annex Bosnia-Herzegovina, while the latter would be able to move naval ships freely from the Black Sea into the Mediterranean. Unfortunately things didn't work out well.  Bulgaria declared independence at the same time and Russia didn't get access to the straits.  The Serbs felt threatened by these actions.

By 1911, Europe was on the brink of war again as Germany once again tried to stick its fingers into Morocco.  Italy now decided to take advantage of the decline of the Ottoman Empire by grasping Libya.  The Balkan area was the next area in crisis.   The Ottoman Empire was unable to suppress the nationalistic feelings that were rising in the area.  Minorities turned one upon the other.

Yet, at the same time, a Balkan League was formed when Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro formed a defensive alliance.  Before long, Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire, and were quickly joined by the other Balkan states.  It was a short successful war in the sense that the Balkan states threw out the Ottomans.  The major powers brokered a peace for fear of the war spreading.  They had a multitude of other reasons, too.

Aware that Prussia and Piedmont had created new, larger nations, Vienna was against Serbia attempting to do the same.  Russia, although far from prepared for war, did a trial mobilisation at this time, which caused Vienna to do the same.  Albania proved to be an issue, but finally the two powers backed down, fearful of the cost.  However, Montenegro seized a key city, which set Vienna threatening war.  Russia then was forced to back up its Slav brothers.  Seeing the situation they had created, Montenegro gave up the city, and war was once again averted.

In the middle of June 1913, Bulgaria launched a war against Serbia and Greece.  Rumania and the Ottoman Empire joined with Serbia and Greece, and before long, Bulgaria had lost the war and territory. However, Serbia and Albania remained at odds.   Threatened with war by Austria-Hungary, the Serbs backed down.

1914 brought renewed tensions.  As the year progressed, everyone felt that war was inevitable.  Sunday June 28, 1914 was a beautiful day throughout Europe; summer was underway and the leadership had commenced their summer holidays.  The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife was the final crisis, which brought on the dark days of the Great War.

Author Margaret Macmillan has written an excellent book explaining the many facets that led up to The Great War.  For a lover of history, this was a very enjoyable read.